Aristotelian Ethics Explained

 

 

Aristotle, one of the most influential philosophers in Western history, developed a comprehensive ethical theory in his work, Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle distinguishes two kinds of virtue. There are those that pertain to the part of the soul that engages in reasoning and those capable of following reason. Intellectual virtues are in turn divided into two sorts which are those that pertain to theoretical reasoning, and those that pertain to practical thinking. He organizes his material by first studying ethical virtue in general, then moving to a discussion of particular ethical virtues, and finally completing his survey by considering the intellectual virtues such as practical and theoretical wisdom. Virtue is the proper function of a thing and people as rational creatures; their function is fulfilled through reason which informs good character and this is finalized through eudaimonia which will be explained later. This is why his ethics are classified as teleological.

Aristotle emphasized the practical importance of developing excellent virtue of character as the man who possesses character excellence will tend to do the right thing, at the right time, and in the right way. Aristotle regards excellent activity as pleasurable for the man of virtue. The overall goal is eudaimonia which can be translated as happiness or living well and it is good in itself. Eudaimonia is not just happiness but flourishing or living in accordance with reason. Aristotelian ethics are to be practical such that the right course of action depends on the situation at hand rather than applying a blanket law and it is about practice rather than theory alone. While it requires an act to be virtuous, it is through practical wisdom that allows us to recognize what is virtuous in the first place. Doing well in any pursuit requires virtue therefore living well consists in activities caused by the rational soul in accordance with virtue in performing virtuous activity. At the same time, to be happy one must possess other goods such as friends, wealth, and power such that one’s happiness is endangered if one is severely lacking. For example, if one is extremely ugly, or has lost children or good friends through death they will not be as happy as they could be. All people are born with the potential to become virtuous people but it has to be developed through proper habit as we become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts, therefore virtues are acquired habits. When their reason is fully developed, they must acquire practical wisdom. Ethical virtue is fully developed only when it is combined with practical wisdom.

Now what is ethical virtue according to Aristotle? Virtue is in the golden mean or an intermediate condition between excess and deficiency. For example, courage is the mean between someone who is a coward and flees from every danger and a rash person who has no fear and is reckless. Friendliness is the mean between quarrelsome and flattering, gentleness is the mean between wrathfulness and spiritedness, generous is the mean between stinginess and wastefulness However, the mean in any situation is not universal or thoughtless but requires detailed acquaintance with the circumstances. However, some things he sees as always wrong such as certain emotions like spite and envy as well as certain actions like adultery and murder. Aristotle sees in ethical activity an attraction that is comparable to the beauty of poetry and music. Aristotle says that in practice people tend by nature towards the more pleasurable of the extremes and therefore to them the virtuous mean appears to be relatively closer to the less pleasant extreme. Therefore, people should go toward the extreme that is less pleasant to correct for that human predisposition. There can arise certain obstacles to become virtuous according to Aristotle. This includes those who are self-indulgent, beastly, and ill-tempered. Aristotle says that someone who lacks self-control is typically influenced either by pleasures or pains such as food and sex, or by more complex pleasures and pains like those associated with victory, honor, or wealth. Lack of self-control in the first case is simply lack of self-control and is a sort of vice but the latter is pursuing good things, but in an excessive, unrestrained way. At least with anger it listens to reason, albeit a crude reason, while desires only follow desires.

Practically wisdom is not mere intuition, but can be justified by a chain of reasoning. It also presupposes that one has some goal one is trying to achieve. The task of reasoning is to determine how that goal is to be accomplished. Virtue makes the goal right, practical wisdom the things leading to it. Aristotle believed that man is a social animal and that morality is inherently social. Virtuous acts often involve other people and our relationships with them. The grandest expression of ethical virtue is political power, because the political leader who is in a position to do the greatest amount of good for the community and has to exhibit the greatest amount of practical wisdom to do this. A philosopher, on the other hand, will exhibit the greatest amount of theoretical wisdom. Moral responsibility in Aristotelian ethics is tied to the concept of voluntary action. An action is voluntary if it is done with knowledge and free choice. Involuntary actions, done out of ignorance or compulsion, do not bear the same moral weight.

In addition to his detailed examination of specific virtues, Aristotle’s ethical theory puts forth the Four Cardinal Virtues which are also found in the works of Plato and Philo: prudence, justice, fortitude, and temperance. Prudence is the ability to choose between right and wrong in any given situation and therefore it is practical wisdom which guides moral virtue. Justice is the virtue concerned with giving each individual what is due to them and thus ensuring that people receive what they deserve, whether in distribution or retribution. Fortitude is the virtue that enables individuals to face difficulties and dangers with resolve and bravery. Temperance is the virtue of self-control and moderation. It involves regulating one's desires and appetites to achieve a balanced and healthy life.

Friendship is also important for Aristotle as it inspires virtue and is a virtue that holds people together. Friendship exists when two people each wish for each other’s good for their own sakes rather than a means to something else and are both aware of this mutual relationship. Aristotle identifies three types of friendship: friendships of utility, pleasure, and virtue. Virtuous friendships are the highest form and most enduring.